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| == Inscription finds and subcorpora ==
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| | This page provides information about Raetic inscription groups combining archaeological, epigraphic and linguistic aspects. It only covers language-encoding inscriptions; see [[index::Non-script notational systems]] for types of non- and para-script marks in the Raetic corpus. |
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| For some clarifications concerning the geography of the Raetic realm and terminology see [[index::Property:sigla group|here]].
| | === Rock inscriptions === |
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| Starting in the South-East of the Raetic realm, two isolated finds come from areas closer to the Venetic sphere.
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| *<u>[[index::Castelcies]]</u>: Built into a church wall at the foot of the Alps by the Piave valley, the [[index::TV-1 slab|stone opistograph]] appears to be of local manufacture. The [[index::TV-1.1|North Italic inscription]] is filed as written in the Magrè alphabet, with Raetic Mu and Alpha, but {{c||S}}→. Linguistically, not indubitably Raetic.
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| *<u>[[index::Padova]]</u>: The [[index::PA-1|inscription]] on the [[index::PA-1 spatula|Paletta di Padova]] is lengthy and definitely linguistically Raetic. It does, however, display some unusual features which may be ascribed to the high dating of the object or the Venetic context of its manufacturing.
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| The southernmost area of agglomeration of Raetic inscriptions is [[index::Verona]] and its environs east of the river Adige / Etsch. Note that no linguistically Raetic testimonies come from the area right of the river, just as no definably Lepontic material is known from the left side.
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| *<u>East of Verona</u>: From [[index::Montorio Veronese|Montorio]], two small bones, [[index::VR-7|one]] with maybe an individual name, [[index::VR-8|one]] with marks. Also, an antler grip plate with an epigraphically peculiar [[index::VR-6|inscription]] (containing {{c||Þ3}} in combination with Venetoid letter forms). All the pieces are vaguely Raetoid (support, characters, content), though none can be definitely connected to the Raetic sphere. An inscribed potsherd may belong in a Roman context, cp. the two potsherds with a Latin inscription from the same find spot. Two unusually shaped (and unusually large) antler pieces come from [[index::San Briccio]]. [[index::VR-1]] is conspicuous for the occurrence of Raetic {{c||T4}}, while [[index::VR-2]] may contain the word {{w||þinaχe}}, noticeably spelled with Zeta (see below).
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| *<u>North of Verona</u>: A substantial inscription find in a building in [[index::San Giorgio di Valpolicella]] yields documents whose epigraphical status is somewhat dubious. While [[index::VR-12]] (on a bone) could be classified as epigraphically Raetic (with Venetoid = Magrè-style Lambda and Pi, and Raetic {{c||A}}), [[index::VR-17]] (on a bone point) has Mu with four bars, unknown in Raetic. [[index::VR-12]] is also the only inscription with "standard" Alpha, all the others having {{c||A22}} (with the bar not touching the hastae). [[index::VR-13]] and [[index::VR-14]] (on bones) both have {{c||L}}, which is read Lambda in the TIR, but might qualify as Lepontic Pi (esp. in combination with {{c||L2}} in [[index::VR-14]], though this is highly doubtful). Both the slightly longer inscriptions on bronze fittings (?) contain Venetic/Magrè {{c||U}} and can be determined to have linguistically Raetic content. But while the dental affricate is written with Tau in [[index::VR-10]] – an expectable compromise spelling in the absence of a special character – [[index::VR-11]] has Zeta, which points towards Lepontic or even Etruscan influence. The (to varying extent) shortened form {{w||þinaχe}} connects the two bronze pieces with the [[index::VR-4|inscription]] on a bone from [[index::Castelrotto]], and possibly also with the abovementioned antler piece from [[index::San Briccio]], both of which – provided that the interpretation is correct – also have Zeta for the dental affricate. Syllabic punctuation is employed in two, possibly three of the inscriptions on bone, and also, in a rather curious fashion, on the bronze objects and in Castelrotto. In all cases but one, the puncts take the form of a short vertical at the bottom of the line. It may be observed that San appears comparatively frequently, while Sigma is notably absent – maybe a North Etruscan feature?
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| *<u>[[index::Trissino]]</u>: From the only find place in the Agno valley, 36 bones, among them four with inscriptions. Two of these ([[index::TR-1.1]], [[index::TR-3]]) lend themselves to some extent to interpretation as Raetic words (names?); the other two ([[index::TR-2]], [[index::TR-4]]) display similarities in the characters used (including punctuation marks) and are obscure. All four are filed as being written in the Magrè alphabet ({{c||U5}}, {{c||A15}}, {{c||P}} (?)). Unlike the [[index::Ganglegg]] bones, those from [[index::Trissino]] are not perforated; only [[index::TR-1.2|one]] bears an additional mark on the back.
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| *<u>[[index::Magrè]]</u>: 21 pieces of antler found together on (probably) a site of burnt offerings; all of them bear linguistically usable inscriptions. Individual testimonies share a number of characteristics with others: Almost all antlers have marks on the back; they all have (or may have had) drilled holes at one end. Five pieces are only partly cut in half, with the entire tip of the antler preserved. Only one is decorated with ornamental lines at both ends. Dextroverse writing is comparatively frequent (8 dextroverse vs 10 sinistroverse), and in at least two inscriptions the writing direction appears to have changed during the application when the writer turned the object in their hand. Maybe connected with this lax attitude towards direction, the letters Alpha and Epsilon (once even Upsilon) are frequently inverted. The Magrè special character {{c||Þ}} appears in six inscriptions, writing either {{w||þinaχe}} or {{m||-þu}} (and once {{w||piθie|piþie}} by mistake). The obscure ending (?) {{m||-þu}}, exclusive to Magrè, occurs thrice. {{w||þinaχe}} occurs in four inscriptions, always with a (clear or potential) name and three times with a third, opaque element. Five inscriptions contain clear unmarked name formulae. Some inscriptions seem to be associated with each other, e.g. the recurrence of the names {{w||piθie}} and {{w||piθam(n)e}}, and of the (name?) elements {{w||esθua|esθua(-)}} and {{w||valθikinu|val-}}. However, no clear groups emerge; it is hard to determine how homogenic the Magrè corpus really is. At least, the alphabet – apart from inverted Upsilon in [[index::MA-6]] – is consistently that which is named after the site. [[index::MA-24]] is a non-inscription on a lead ingot.
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| *<u>[[index::Piovene Rocchette]]</u>: A single inscribed [[index::AS-14 potsherd|potsherd]] from the place where the Astico valley first opens into the Padan plain, some 10 km northwest of [[index::Magrè]]. The four-letter [[index::AS-14|inscription]] contains Phi and Khi, and cannot be securely ascribed to the Raetic corpus on either epigraphical or linguistical grounds.
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| *<u>[[index::Bostel]]</u>: The settlement near [[index::Rotzo]] in the western Altopiano di Asiago, above the Adige valley, has been yielding inscribed objects, mostly pottery, since the 1880ies. All but [[index::AS-3|one]] of the finds from before 1920 ([[index::AS-1]]–[[index::AS-13]]) are currently untraceable and probably destroyed, which makes an evaluation of the corpus difficult. However, the more recent finds ([[index::AS-15]]–[[index::AS-23]]) fit in well with the descriptions of the older material, and corroborate {{bib|PID|Whatmough}}'s decision to ascribe the latter to the Raetic corpus. Two repeatedly occurring sequences of characters on ceramic beakers ({{c||I}}{{c||Θ}}{{c||Θ}}{{c||I}} and {{c||Ś3|d}}{{c||V|d}}) probably represent workmen's marks. They are usually inscribed on the narrow bottom of the vessel, with the tops of the letters pointing towards the foot, sometimes also on the foot or the wall, and usually written repeatedly on the same object. In [[index::AS-15]], [[index::AS-19]] and probably [[index::AS-2]], these marks appear in combination with language-encoding inscriptions. The well attested Raetic individual name {{w||piθam(n)e|piθamne}} occurs twice. A complex mark inscribed twice on [[index::AS-16 beaker]] seems to connect the writing on pottery with the two "bone needles" (maybe [[index::Ganglegg]]-style bone points?) [[index::AS-12 needle]] and [[index::AS-13 needle]] bearing one mark each. Half of the proper inscriptions and the mark {{c||Ś3|d}}{{c||V|d}} are written dextroverse. The alphabet used is Venetoid ({{c||P|d}}, {{c||U|d}}), but Lambda, occurring only [[index::AS-19.1|once]], has Sanzeno-shape (in combination with both Venetoid Pi and Upsilon). Alpha, Sigma and Mu appear in their typically Raetic shapes.
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| *<u>[[index::Montesei di Serso]]</u>: From the meeting point of Valsugana and Valle dei Mòcheni / Fersental; twelve pieces of antler. Found together in a house and bearing Raetic inscriptions at least partly similar in form and content, they can be compared to the Magrè finds, though the context does not suggest the presence of a sanctuary. The inscriptions are written in the Magrè alphabet; only [[index::SR-2]] has {{c||U2}}, not accompanied by Pi or Lambda, but ←{{c||A3|d}} and – apparently – syllabic punctuation. ←{{c||A3|d}} and ←{{c||A3}} both occur (4:7), though never in the same text; equally, Sigma is turned in both directions (in about equal distribution), once in the [[index::SR-4|same inscription]]. Both Magrè-Heta {{c||H3}} and Khi ({{c||Χ}}, {{c||Χ3}}) appear twice. {{c||Θ}} is the only letter for a dental employed in Serso; Tau, Zeta and the special character are absent. Pi {{c||P5}} occurs only [[index::SR-5|once]], accompanied by traditionally shaped Phi {{c||Φ2}}, which is also found in the deviant [[index::SR-2]] ({{c||Φ}}). Three of the other inscriptions contain the word {{w||perisna}} written with {{c||T4}} in the anlaut, on which see [[index::T]]. Seven of the twelve inscriptions feature some sort of punctuation, three of those have punctuated letters, which is singular in Raetic context (more on punctuation below). In addition to the antler pieces, three objects with non-inscriptions from the site are included in the TIR.
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| The valley of the Avisio river / Laifserbach, reaching the Adige valley at Trento from the Northeast, yields two unassociated inscriptions.
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| *<u>[[index::Caslir]]</u>: An old finding, the ''[[index::CE-1 situla|Situla Giovanelli]]'' with its five sequences of letters remains the only inscribed object from the Val di Cembra / Zimmerstal (the lower course of the river). While some of the sequences may belong together, they cannot all be regarded as part of only one inscription. The alphabet, however, is consistently that of Sanzeno (exclusively ←{{c||U2}}, ←{{c||L2}}, ←{{c||A}}, ←{{c||S}}), with the exception of Pi, which occurs only [[index::CE-1.3|once]], appearing as ←{{c||P2|d}}. See [[index::P]] for details.
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| *<u>[[index::Tesero]]</u>: From the Val di Fiemme / Fleimstal (the central part of the valley), an unusual [[index::FI-1|inscription]] of apparently Celtic content. The [[index:: FI-1 antler|antler handle]], however, is a typical support for Raetic inscriptions. Due to the many inverted and retrograde letters, an ascription to any specific alphabet is not possible.
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| The centre of Raetic writing, at least as far as the number of inscriptions is concerned, is situated between [[index::Trento]] and [[index::Meran / Merano]]. Inscription finds were made in the [[index::Nonsberg / Val di Non|Val di Non]], in the higher land between the Non and Adige valleys (Überetsch), as well as along the latter (Unterland, Burggrafenamt, and also further up the river in the Vinschgau).
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| *<u>[[index::Sanzeno]]</u>: The most notable find group, the fifteen zoomorphic bronzes, were found together in a sand pit in the settlement in the locality Casalini. There is no evidence for a sanctuary, e.g. a larger building or a site of burnt offerings, but the bronzes clearly testify to ritual practice. They are executed in half-plastic, i.e. cast in an open mould, and have holes drilled into them – apparently they were attached to a wall or similar vertical structure. The animals depicted are mostly horses, more or less abstraced, sometimes with riders, as well as fish and a couple of unidentifiable creatures. (The [[index::SZ-13 bronze|dolphin]] does not fit in with the others in both style and the fact that it does not seem to bear an inscription. The latter is also the case for three of the horse-shaped bronzes, but the overall execution is in line with the local style.) We do not know whether all the bronzes which have come down to us are from the same time, but they and also the inscriptions they bear are noticeably similar. It is highly likely that the bronzes are of local manufacture and were bought in situ by the dedicants, much like one can purchase pictures of saints at pilgrimage churches today. In fact, it is not impossible that the inscriptions were made upon request by local scribes rather than the dedicants themselves. The texts consist mainly in full names in the nominative; sometimes up to three persons are named on one object, and some of them can be demonstrated to be related – for example Remi, Visteχa's son, and his (presumably) wife Φrima in [[index::SZ-2.1]]. Not all of the inscriptions are transparent, though; quite a few contain elements which cannot at this point be analysed. Many objects feature additional marks of different complexity – workman's marks, or possibly even price tags? In addition to the half-plastic bronzes, definitely language-encoding sequences are inscribed on the [[index::SZ-16 statuette|statuette]] of a warrior, on two bronze rods ([[index::SZ-87]], [[index::SZ-96]]), a [[index::SZ-31 simpulum|simpulum]] and a [[index::SZ-18 key|key]]. Of greatest importance is the fragmentary votive inscription on the [[index::SZ-30 situla|Sanzeno situla]]. The remainder of the inscribed bronze objects (vessels, simpula, a bronze, a statuette) bears mostly 3–4 character inscriptions, some of which might be linguistically relevant (names?). Equally, on organic material, only one linguistically usable [[index::SZ-22.1|inscription]] on a grip plate, and again various obscure shortish sequences on antler objects, two bones and one tusk. A fair amount of the iron implements found in Sanzeno is inscribed, with a few inscriptions occurring repeatedly, suggesting factory marks (see {{w||upi}}, {{w||sχsi}}, {{w||þine}}, {{w||la}}, {{w||iai}}, {{w||uθiiθi}}). Also, possibly a [[index::SZ-68|Latin inscription]] on an iron knife, and two inscriptions which may have been more substantial on a [[index::SZ-73|helmet]]. Finally, some pottery bearing more or less well legible scratchings – more workman's marks?
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| *<u>Val di Non (other sites)</u>: Most of the other find places of inscriptions in the basin come from the northern part around the Lago di Santa Giustina. The only outlier is the more southerly [[index::Dercolo]], from whence come an inscribed [[index::NO-11 bronze|horse bronze]] (part of a ritual deposit) and two unassociated bowls with non-inscriptions. From [[index::Mechel / Meclo]] we have the miniature shield bearing an [[index::NO-3|exemplary dedication formula]], as well as a (fragmentary?) [[index::NO-19|inscription]] on the fragment of another votive plaque. Of two rims of bronze vessels, [[index::NO-6 fragment|one]] bears an inscription, the [[index::NO-8|other one]] only a mark. In addition, two antler pieces (one with a usable, one with a doubtful inscription), as well as a [[index::NO-5|potsherd]], and a [[index::NO-9|fibula]] with what are probably ornamental marks. Five linguistically usable inscriptions, on bronze objects and one bone point, come from [[index::Cles]]; [[index::NO-2|one of them]] repeats part of the [[index::SZ-16|inscription]] on the Warrior of Sanzeno. From [[index::Revò]], a single [[index::NO-13 bone|astragalos]] with an [[index::NO-13|inscription]] which appears to be associated with the [[index::Montesei di Serso|Serso]] corpus. From [[index::Tavòn]], a [[index::NO-10 slab|stone slab]] with obscure [[index::NO-10|inscription]]. Also from somewhere in the Val di Non comes a [[index::NO-14 potsherd|potsherd]] with an inscription or mark resembling finds from the [[index::Piperbühel]] and [[index::Mellaun / Meluno]].
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| *<u>[[index::Bozen / Bolzano]] area</u>: The Etsch valley between Salurn / Salorno and [[index::Meran / Merano]] and the immediately adjoining mountainous areas yield a fair number of inscribed objects. Apart from the alphabet used, which is exclusively that of Sanzeno (where identifiable), the object and inscription types are highly varied. While many finds come from well researched archaeological contexts (e.g. the settlement and grave field of [[index::Pfatten / Vadena]]/[[index::Stadlhof]]), no homogenous group finds of inscriptions have so far been made in the area. The only arguable exception is the '''helmet hoard''' found on the [[index::Kosman-Gut|Kosman property]] in the highlands north of the Bozen basin (inscriptions [[index::BZ-26]] to [[index::BZ-29]] on fragments of helmets). Of five inscriptions from [[index::Eppan / Appiano|Überetsch]], i.e. the highlands west of the Etsch, two ([[index::BZ-14]], [[index::BZ-24]]) are linguistically relevant. The latter is the only Raetic inscription containing the letter Omicron, and our only testimony indicating a process of latinisation. The site of [[index::Kaltern / Caldaro]], representing the South of Überetsch, is not actually relevant, as the [[index::BZ-17|only find]] is dated to the Hallstatt era and is not associated with Raetic writing or even para-writing. The Unterland ([[index::Pfatten / Vadena]]) yields four minor inscriptions and the stela [[index::BZ-10 slab]]. Four inscriptions on bronze vessels come from [[index::Moritzing / San Maurizio]] in the Bozen basin. Two of them are merely marks, but one is the substantial [[index::BZ-4]]. Following the Etsch upwards (the Burggrafenamt is, roughly speaking, the Etsch valley between [[index::Bozen / Bolzano]] and [[index::Meran / Merano]]), a number of highly varied inscriptions on different kinds of objects. From the area of [[index::Siebeneich / Settequerce]], one [[index::BZ-5|dubious inscription]], as well as another [[index::BZ-6 slab|inscribed slab]] and [[index::BZ-3]] on a [[index::BZ-3 simpulum|simpulum]]. The only proper inscription from further north is [[index::BZ-2]] on a [[index::BZ-2 axe|bronze axe]] from [[index::St. Christoph]]. Besides that, only four objects with marks from the settlement of [[index::St. Hippolyt / Sant'Ippolito]], as well as two dubious inscriptions on potsherds from the [[index::Hochbühel]] near [[index::Meran / Merano]].
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| *<u>Vinschgau</u>: A considerable number of bone objects has been found on the [[index::Ganglegg]] settlement site, some of them inscribed with marks of varying complexity. Eighteen of them – perforated bones, bone points and handles (?) – are included in the TIR; of these, about twelve bear characters which may be considered letters. The legible inscriptions contain Raetic individual names, some of them recurring, often systematically combined with additional characters of unclear function. Some of the non- and dubious inscriptions also resemble each other. All in all, the small corpus is quite homogenous, but the function of objects and inscriptions is obscure. Where identifiable, the alphabet is consistently that of Sanzeno ({{c||L2}}, {{c||U2}}, ←{{c||S}}, ←{{c||A}}), but note ←{{c||P2|d}} on [[index::VN-2]]/[[index::VN-3]]. A single find comes from the older settlement on the [[index::Tartscher Bühel]]. The [[index::VN-1|inscription]] on an antler grip plate is linguistically Raetic and, like the Ganglegg finds, written in the Sanzeno alphabet.
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| From [[index::Bozen / Bolzano]], where the Eisack valley opens into the Adige valley, a trail of inscription finds leads north to the Brenner pass and over it to the Inn valley.
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| *<u>[[index::Piperbühel]]</u>: From the site near [[index::Klobenstein / Collalbo]], not too far from Bozen, come three inscriptions on completely different objects, which do not appear to have anything in common beyond the find place. For the [[index::RN-1|inscription on a slab]] see below (sub "Inscriptions on stones"); the [[index::RN-2|lengthy text on a wooden rod]] is utterly mysterious. Both are written in the Sanzeno alphabet. The third is an inscriptoid on pottery which can be compared with finds from the Eisack and Non valleys (see the [[index::RN-3|inscription page]]).
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| *<u>[[index::Rungger Egg]]</u>: Of the numerous potsherds with incised marks found on the site, only two bear characters which may be referred to as letters. The similarity might, however, well be fortuitious. No certain script material is known from the area.
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| *<u>Eisack valley, [[index::Mellaun / Meluno]]</u>: Four potsherds with marks, at least two – possibly all four – from the [[index::Reiferfelder]]. [[index::WE-6]] and [[index::WE-7]] can be compared with marks on ceramic fragments from elsewhere in the Raetic realm. No secure testimonies of script from the site.
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| *<u>Eisack valley, [[index::Stufels]]</u>: Two objects with lengthy inscriptions. [[index::WE-3]] on an isolated piece of antler (apparently originally an actual handle) is written in the Sanzeno alphabet. [[index::WE-4]] is written in the Magrè alphabet; the support – a Roman-style ''olla'' – may be imported from the South.
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| *<u>Puster valley</u>: The eleven inscribed objects from the Puster valley, despite them all coming from the context of the Raetic settlement predating ancient Sebatum, are inhomogenic. The most important document by far is the [[index::PU-1 belt plaque|Lothen belt plaque]] bearing a lengthy but obscure inscription with some epigraphical peculiarities. Three bones (currently untraceable) and three potsherds from the [[index::Steger]] hill bear short and obscure inscriptions. More interesting support-wise are two small inscribed stone objects, [[index::PU-4|one]] with maybe a name. Additionally, two loom weights with dubious marks. Where it can be determined, the inscriptions are written in the Magrè alphabet.
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| *<u>Wipp valley, [[index::Kronbühel / Custozza]]</u>: Only a single inscribed [[index::WE-2 potsherd|potsherd]] from the upper Eisack valley. The characters of the fragmentary [[index::WE-2|inscription]] may represent script, but cannot be ascribed to a specific alphabet.
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| *<u>Wipp valley, [[index::Matrei am Brenner]]</u>: The only find from the valley of the river Sill between the Brenner pass and the Inn valley, already fairly close to [[index::Innsbruck]], where the Sill meets the Inn. An exemplary inscription written in the Magrè alphabet (/{{p||l}}/ = {{c||L}}).
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| Along the Inn valley, inscriptions have been found on numerous sites in North Tyrol. Only one find comes from the Engadin.
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| *<u>Eastern Inn valley</u>: The easternmost find spot is [[index::Pirchboden]], from whence a [[index::IT-4 unidentifiable|singular object]] – probably a musical instrument – with a heavily damaged, but clearly Raetic [[index::IT-4|inscription]] written in the Magrè alphabet. Only a few kilometers along the valley, but south of the river, the [[index::Himmelreich]] yields a great number of potsherds bearing marks. Of the three objects in the TIR, [[index::IT-1|one]] belongs with this group, [[index::IT-3|one]] bears characters of doubtful status. The [[index::IT-2|third one]] is the only properly inscribed potsherd (of a ''Fritzener Schale'') in the entire corpus, bearing a Raetic individual name, probably written in the Magrè alphabet. From the [[index::Demlfeld]] a little further west comes the [[index::IT-5 plaque|only votive bronze plaque]] of the corpus; the substantial [[index::IT-5|inscription]] is the only one from beyond the Brenner pass which is written in the Sanzeno alphabet.
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| *<u>Western Inn valley</u>: From [[index::Hörtenberg]] a round [[index::IT-6 stone|stone]] with a [[index::IT-6|non-inscription]] which has parallels from elsewhere in the Raetic realm, as well as a fragmentary [[index::IT-7|inscription]] on a [[index::IT-7 plaque|piece of iron fitting]]. The alphabet in the latter inscription is that of Magrè. In the very West, just beyond the confluence of Inn and Sanna, the [[index::Pillerhöhe]] yields – besides two bowls with non-inscriptions – an [[index::IT-8|inscription]] on a [[index::IT-8 potsherd|ceramic handle]], probably written in the Magrè alphabet. Note that [[index::IT-7]] (Hörtenberg) and [[index::IT-8]] (Pillerhöhe) both feature a noticeably small St. Andrew's cross (see [[index::Θ|Theta]]).
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| *<u>[[index::Ardez]]</u>: Only [[index::EN-1 potsherd|one piece of inscribed pottery]] from the upper Inn valley; the fragmentary [[index::EN-1|inscription]] cannot be ascribed to any specific alphabet or even securely to the Raetic corpus.
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| <u>Rock inscriptions</u>
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| ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | lig | | ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | lig |
| ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | {{c||S2}} | | ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | {{c||S2|d}} |
| ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | {{c||L4|d}} | | ! style="text-align:center; width:16px;" | {{c||L4|d}} |
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| ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.7 | | ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.7 |
| | style="text-align:center" | ← | | | style="text-align:center" | ← |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| Line 175: |
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| | style="text-align:center" | (x) | | | style="text-align:center" | (x) |
| | style="text-align:center" | x | | | style="text-align:center" | x |
| | style="text-align:center" | x | | | style="text-align:center" | (x) |
| | style="text-align:center" | x | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.17 | | ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.17 |
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| |- | | |- |
| ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.19 | | ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.19 |
| | style="text-align:center" | ← | | | style="text-align:center" | → |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | |- |
| | ! style="text-align:right;" | AK-1.21 |
| | | style="text-align:center" | → |
| | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
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| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| | style="text-align:center" | x | | | style="text-align:center" | x |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
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| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | - |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| | style="text-align:center" | - | | | style="text-align:center" | |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| Petrographs from the Raetic area and displaying linguistically Raetic features have been found (so far) only in the very North, i.e. in the Northern Limestone Alps. The [[index::Schneidjoch]] (ST, one rock) and the site of the [[index::Achenkirch]] inscriptions (AK, min. two rocks) are located close to each other in the [[index::Steinberg]]/Achensee region (Tyrol); the [[index::Unterammergau]] inscriptions (UG, min. three rocks) are found in Southern Bavaria. Not all of the inscriptions registered in the TIR are epigraphically or linguistically utilisable – of some, only faint traces can be seen, many are doubtful, a few are most probably not Raetic or even script. Among the longer testimonies from Tyrol, two groups emerge under both alphabetical and linguistical aspects: | | Petrographs from the Raetic area and displaying linguistically Raetic features have been found (so far) only in the very north, viz. in the Northern Limestone Alps. The [[index::Schneidjoch]] in the Rofan mountains (one inscribed wall) and the site of the [[index::Achenkirch]] inscriptions (min. two walls) are located close to each other in the Achensee region (Nordtirol); the [[index::Unterammergau]] inscriptions (min. three walls) are found in the Ammertal in southern Bavaria. Not all of the inscriptions registered in TIR are epigraphically or linguistically utilisable – of some, only faint traces can be seen, many are doubtful, a few are most probably not Raetic or even script. |
| *Sinistroverse inscriptions ending in {{w||)nuale|-nuale}}, containing straight-forward name formulae in the pertinentive case (where decipherable), featuring the expectable Venetoid {{c||L}} and other Magrè letter forms and being generally inconspicuous: [[index::ST-1]], [[index::ST-2]], [[index::ST-3]], [[index::AK-1.1]], [[index::AK-1.2]], [[index::AK-1.6]], [[index::AK-1.7]], [[index::AK-1.19]].
| | |
| *Dextroverse inscriptions of unclear linguistic content, showing certain special features (to varying extent): the punctuation of suffixes, ligatures, and the letter forms {{c||S2}} (angles opening in writing direction), {{c||L4|d}} and {{c||K3|d}}. Of these inscriptions, [[index::ST-5]] (the only sinistroverse one) and [[index::ST-6]] are particularly similar in structure; [[index::AK-1.11]] (as well as the fragmentary [[index::AK-1.10]], [[index::AK-2.1]] and [[index::AK-2.2]]) may be grouped alongside. Dextroverse [[index::AK-1.17]] lacks the punctuated suffixes, but has {{c||S2}} and apparently a (different) ligature.
| | Among the utilisable petrographs, two groups emerge under both epigraphic and linguistic aspects:<br> |
| For a detailed itemisation see the table on the right. The inscriptions [[index::ST-4]] and [[index::ST-8]] do not fit in smoothly with either group. The testimonies from Unterammergau are hard to compare with the Achental-subcorpus: Of the two utilisable inscriptions, both dextroverse, [[index::UG-1.1]] is unusually short and features {{c||S2}}; [[index::UG-1.2]] has standard {{c||S|d}} and is equally opaque. | | 1. Inscriptions ending in {{m||-nu}}{{m||-le|-ale}} which contain (where sufficiently well preserved) two-part name formulae in the pertinentive case. They are usually sinistroverse, feature standard (Venetoid) letter forms, and are generally inconspicuous: [[index::ST-1]], [[index::ST-2]], [[index::ST-3]], [[index::AK-1.1]], [[index::AK-1.2]], [[index::AK-1.6]], [[index::AK-1.7]], [[index::AK-1.19]], [[index::AK-1.21]].<br> |
| | 2. Inscriptions of unclear linguistic content which show, besides some standard Venetoid letter forms, certain unusual epigraphic features (to varying extent): dextroverse orientation, the punctuation of suffixes, ligatures, and peculiar letter forms (four-stroke sigma {{c||S2|d}}, lambda with the bar extending from the middle of the hasta {{c||L4|d}} or {{c||L3|d}}, kappa {{c||K3|d}} with bars which do not touch in the middle). Of these inscriptions, [[index::ST-5]] (the only sinistroverse one), [[index::ST-6]] and [[index::AK-1.11]] are particularly similar in structure; [[index::AK-1.17]] as well as the fragmentary [[index::AK-1.10]], [[index::AK-2.1]] and [[index::AK-2.2]] may be grouped alongside. |
| | |
| | For a detailed itemisation see the table on the right. A cross marks the presence of a feature, a dash its demonstrable absence; an empty field indicates that the relevant datum is not available for the inscription. The inscriptions [[index::ST-4]] and [[index::ST-8]] do not fit in smoothly with either group; the use of zeta associates [[index::ST-4]] with type 1, the presence of four-stroke sigma puts [[index::ST-8]] closer to type 2. The testimonies from [[index::Unterammergau]] are hard to compare with those from Nordtirol due to their shortness, but both the two utilisable inscriptions are dextroverse; [[index::UG-1.1]] features {{c||S2|d}}, while [[index::UG-1.2]] has standard sigma {{c||S}}. |
| | |
| | The inscriptions of the first group (type 1) are written in the Magrè alphabet (see [[index::Script]]), with the typically Raetic orientation of sigma, but "traditional" North Italic alpha with the bar slanting down in writing direction. [[index::ST-2]] may feature typical Inntal pi {{c||P3}}; [[index::ST-2]] and [[index::ST-3]] may show influence of Este orthography in the use of zeta for a lenis. As concerns the second group (type 2), the position of [[index::ST-6]] in relation to [[index::ST-3]] indicates that this type is younger; the epigraphic peculiarities cannot at this point be collectively classified. The forms of upsilon and tau are also those of the Magrè alphabet. A specific affinity with the Venetic sphere is indicated by lambda {{c||L4|d}}, which occurs in the votive inscriptions of the Venetic sanctuaries of Auronzo and Calalzo (Làgole) di Cadore in the upper Piave/Ansiei valley, but this is the only similarity with that subcorpus. The presence of unambiguously Venetic heta {{c||H4}} in [[index::ST-5]] is very uncertain. Punctuation of suffixes, if that is what it is (see [[index::Script]]), rather than syllabic punctuation is not known from Venetic. The ligatures with inverted, retrograde nu (and maybe mu) stand isolated as well. None of the Raetic petrographs show any particular affinity to the only rock inscriptions in the Venetic corpus, those from Würmlach in the Gailtal (Gt 13–23). Four-stroke sigma is not a Venetic feature; in the Raetic corpus, it otherwise only occurs in [[index::PU-1]], which shares the use of zeta for a stop with the type-1 petrographs. |
| | |
| | Apart from [[index::FP-1]] from the Fern pass and the somewhat doubtful and epigraphically Camunic [[index::AV-1]], the rock inscriptions are the only documents of Raetic from beyond the Inntal. Any propositions concerning the ultimate function of these inscriptions and the identity and purpose of the writers must at this point remain speculative. Considering that the names in type-1 inscriptions appear in the case appropriate for votive inscriptions, we may assume that the petrographs are dedicatory in nature, even though it remains unclear what was actually sacrificed. No finds were made in the vicinity of the rock walls, even where archaeological excavations were made (see [[index::ST rock]]). Repeated references to springs (von Sydow for [[index::ST rock|Steinberg]], Mandl for [[index::Achenkirch]]) hint at the widespread notion that the petrographs are connected with sanctuaries by springs, but this is far from certain. Should one or more of the sites have been sanctuaries, material donations must have been intentionally removed – numerous potsherds with marks and bones were found in the spring sanctuary at Telfes in the Stubaital ({{bib|Sydow 1989}}: 70). We may also consider the possibility that the inscriptions themselves constitute the sacrifice, in that the record of the name serves as verification of the visit (but would this warrant the pertinentive case?). It must be remembered, though, that inscriptions on large, stationary objects are by no means always connected with cultic acts – not today, and not in antiquity. This is effectively shown by the younger graffiti on our rock walls, which include large numbers of initials and dates, some inscribed roughly, some with great care, serifs and cartouches. They are documents of the human desire to leave a mark. If the rocks/cave simply served as shelters, any Iron Age wanderer waiting out the rain might have started doodling. |
| | |
| | This leads to questions concerning provenance and class of the writers. Since we do not know who could write in Raetic society (see above on the Sanzeno bronze votives), we cannot make statements about what types of people we expect to have the ability to inscribe their names on Alpine rock walls. Could Kastrie and his sons at [[index::ST rock|Steinberg]] have been local shepherds or farmers? If this seems unlikely and we prefer to think of literate travellers from the south, we have to ask about the location of the petrograph sites in relation to pre-Roman routes of transit across the Alps. That sanctuaries in Nordtirol were visited by foreigners who also left inscribed votives is demonstrated by inscriptions from the [[index::Demlfeld]], whence come not only the Sanzeno-alphabet [[index::IT-5]], but also a Venetic inscription (*It 5). A connection of cult places with inscription finds with routes of transit can be made likely for the [[index::Pillerhöhe]] and the [[index::Fern pass]]. The petrograph sites in Nordtirol, however, are rather remote, and associated with routes which can hardly have been of more than local importance. This is also true of the Roman graffiti found at 1400 m a.s.l. in the Tegernsee region in Bavaria, dated to the 1<sup>st</sup>–3<sup>rd</sup> century AD ({{bib|Wedenig 2000}}: 129 f.) The [[index::Unterammergau]] site, on the other hand, lies close to the likely course of the Brenner route between Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Augsburg. |
|
| |
|
| The inscriptions of the first group are written in the Magrè alphabet, with the typically Raetic orientation of Sigma, but "traditional" North Italic Alpha with the bar slanting down in writing direction. As concerns the second group, the form {{c||L4|d}} of Lambda occurs in the votive inscriptions of the Venetic sanctuaries of Auronzo and Calalzo (Làgole) di Cadore in the upper Piave/Ansiei valley, but this is the only similarity with that subcorpus. Punctuation of suffixes rather than syllabic punctuation is not known from Venetic, but see the comments on punctuation in Raetic below. The ligatures stand isolated as well. None of the Raetic petrographs show any particular affinity to the only rock inscriptions in the Venetic corpus, those from Würmlach in the Gail valley (Gt 13–23).
| | === Stone slabs === |
|
| |
|
| Apart from the somewhat doubtful and epigraphically Camunic [[index::AV-1]], the rock inscriptions are the only testimonies of Raetic from beyond the Inn valley. Any propositions concerning the ultimate function of these inscriptions and the identity and purpose of the writers must at this point remain speculative.
| | === Inscriptions on helmets === |
| | Inscribed helmets which are associated with Raetic come from four different contexts: from [[index::Vače]] and the [[index::Ženjak]] helmet hoard in Slovenia, from a hoard from [[index::Jenesien / San Genesio Atesino|Jenesien]] near [[index::Bozen]], and from [[index::Sanzeno]]. |
|
| |
|
| <u>Slovenian helmets</u>
| |
| {{bibliography}} | | {{bibliography}} |
| {{navigation|Main Chapter}} | | {{navigation|Main Chapter}} |
This page provides information about Raetic inscription groups combining archaeological, epigraphic and linguistic aspects. It only covers language-encoding inscriptions; see Non-script notational systems for types of non- and para-script marks in the Raetic corpus.
Rock inscriptions
|
|
dir
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pun
|
lig
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|
|
|
| ST-1
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←
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-
|
-
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-
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-
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-
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| ST-2
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←
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-
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-
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-
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-
|
-
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| ST-3
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←
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-
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-
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-
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-
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-
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| ST-4
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←
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x
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-
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-
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|
| ST-5
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←
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x
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x
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x
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x
|
x
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| ST-6
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→
|
x
|
x
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x
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x
|
x
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| ST-8
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→
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
|
x
|
| AK-1.1
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←
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|
|
-
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-
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|
| AK-1.2
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←
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|
|
|
-
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| AK-1.6
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←
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|
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-
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-
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|
| AK-1.7
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←
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|
|
|
-
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| AK-1.10
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→
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|
|
x
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|
-
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| AK-1.11
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→
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x
|
(x)
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x
|
(x)
|
-
|
| AK-1.17
|
→
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-
|
(x)
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x
|
|
|
| AK-1.19
|
→
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|
|
|
-
|
|
| AK-1.21
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→
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|
|
|
-
|
|
| AK-2.1
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→
|
(x)
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|
x
|
|
|
| AK-2.2
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→
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x
|
|
x
|
|
|
| UG-1.1
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→
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-
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-
|
x
|
|
-
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| UG-1.2
|
→
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
|
Petrographs from the Raetic area and displaying linguistically Raetic features have been found (so far) only in the very north, viz. in the Northern Limestone Alps. The Schneidjoch in the Rofan mountains (one inscribed wall) and the site of the Achenkirch inscriptions (min. two walls) are located close to each other in the Achensee region (Nordtirol); the Unterammergau inscriptions (min. three walls) are found in the Ammertal in southern Bavaria. Not all of the inscriptions registered in TIR are epigraphically or linguistically utilisable – of some, only faint traces can be seen, many are doubtful, a few are most probably not Raetic or even script.
Among the utilisable petrographs, two groups emerge under both epigraphic and linguistic aspects:
1. Inscriptions ending in -nu-ale which contain (where sufficiently well preserved) two-part name formulae in the pertinentive case. They are usually sinistroverse, feature standard (Venetoid) letter forms, and are generally inconspicuous: ST-1, ST-2, ST-3, AK-1.1, AK-1.2, AK-1.6, AK-1.7, AK-1.19, AK-1.21.
2. Inscriptions of unclear linguistic content which show, besides some standard Venetoid letter forms, certain unusual epigraphic features (to varying extent): dextroverse orientation, the punctuation of suffixes, ligatures, and peculiar letter forms (four-stroke sigma , lambda with the bar extending from the middle of the hasta or 
, kappa with bars which do not touch in the middle). Of these inscriptions, ST-5 (the only sinistroverse one), ST-6 and AK-1.11 are particularly similar in structure; AK-1.17 as well as the fragmentary AK-1.10, AK-2.1 and AK-2.2 may be grouped alongside.
For a detailed itemisation see the table on the right. A cross marks the presence of a feature, a dash its demonstrable absence; an empty field indicates that the relevant datum is not available for the inscription. The inscriptions ST-4 and ST-8 do not fit in smoothly with either group; the use of zeta associates ST-4 with type 1, the presence of four-stroke sigma puts ST-8 closer to type 2. The testimonies from Unterammergau are hard to compare with those from Nordtirol due to their shortness, but both the two utilisable inscriptions are dextroverse; UG-1.1 features , while UG-1.2 has standard sigma 
.
The inscriptions of the first group (type 1) are written in the Magrè alphabet (see Script), with the typically Raetic orientation of sigma, but "traditional" North Italic alpha with the bar slanting down in writing direction. ST-2 may feature typical Inntal pi 
; ST-2 and ST-3 may show influence of Este orthography in the use of zeta for a lenis. As concerns the second group (type 2), the position of ST-6 in relation to ST-3 indicates that this type is younger; the epigraphic peculiarities cannot at this point be collectively classified. The forms of upsilon and tau are also those of the Magrè alphabet. A specific affinity with the Venetic sphere is indicated by lambda , which occurs in the votive inscriptions of the Venetic sanctuaries of Auronzo and Calalzo (Làgole) di Cadore in the upper Piave/Ansiei valley, but this is the only similarity with that subcorpus. The presence of unambiguously Venetic heta 
in ST-5 is very uncertain. Punctuation of suffixes, if that is what it is (see Script), rather than syllabic punctuation is not known from Venetic. The ligatures with inverted, retrograde nu (and maybe mu) stand isolated as well. None of the Raetic petrographs show any particular affinity to the only rock inscriptions in the Venetic corpus, those from Würmlach in the Gailtal (Gt 13–23). Four-stroke sigma is not a Venetic feature; in the Raetic corpus, it otherwise only occurs in PU-1, which shares the use of zeta for a stop with the type-1 petrographs.
Apart from FP-1 from the Fern pass and the somewhat doubtful and epigraphically Camunic AV-1, the rock inscriptions are the only documents of Raetic from beyond the Inntal. Any propositions concerning the ultimate function of these inscriptions and the identity and purpose of the writers must at this point remain speculative. Considering that the names in type-1 inscriptions appear in the case appropriate for votive inscriptions, we may assume that the petrographs are dedicatory in nature, even though it remains unclear what was actually sacrificed. No finds were made in the vicinity of the rock walls, even where archaeological excavations were made (see ST rock). Repeated references to springs (von Sydow for Steinberg, Mandl for Achenkirch) hint at the widespread notion that the petrographs are connected with sanctuaries by springs, but this is far from certain. Should one or more of the sites have been sanctuaries, material donations must have been intentionally removed – numerous potsherds with marks and bones were found in the spring sanctuary at Telfes in the Stubaital (Sydow 1989: 70). We may also consider the possibility that the inscriptions themselves constitute the sacrifice, in that the record of the name serves as verification of the visit (but would this warrant the pertinentive case?). It must be remembered, though, that inscriptions on large, stationary objects are by no means always connected with cultic acts – not today, and not in antiquity. This is effectively shown by the younger graffiti on our rock walls, which include large numbers of initials and dates, some inscribed roughly, some with great care, serifs and cartouches. They are documents of the human desire to leave a mark. If the rocks/cave simply served as shelters, any Iron Age wanderer waiting out the rain might have started doodling.
This leads to questions concerning provenance and class of the writers. Since we do not know who could write in Raetic society (see above on the Sanzeno bronze votives), we cannot make statements about what types of people we expect to have the ability to inscribe their names on Alpine rock walls. Could Kastrie and his sons at Steinberg have been local shepherds or farmers? If this seems unlikely and we prefer to think of literate travellers from the south, we have to ask about the location of the petrograph sites in relation to pre-Roman routes of transit across the Alps. That sanctuaries in Nordtirol were visited by foreigners who also left inscribed votives is demonstrated by inscriptions from the Demlfeld, whence come not only the Sanzeno-alphabet IT-5, but also a Venetic inscription (*It 5). A connection of cult places with inscription finds with routes of transit can be made likely for the Pillerhöhe and the Fern pass. The petrograph sites in Nordtirol, however, are rather remote, and associated with routes which can hardly have been of more than local importance. This is also true of the Roman graffiti found at 1400 m a.s.l. in the Tegernsee region in Bavaria, dated to the 1st–3rd century AD (Wedenig 2000: 129 f.) The Unterammergau site, on the other hand, lies close to the likely course of the Brenner route between Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Augsburg.
Stone slabs
Inscriptions on helmets
Inscribed helmets which are associated with Raetic come from four different contexts: from Vače and the Ženjak helmet hoard in Slovenia, from a hoard from Jenesien near Bozen, and from Sanzeno.
